By Mai Chao Duddeck
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Hmong People in China
Different Names for the Hmong
Where They Live
Clothes They Wear
Food They Eat
Religious and Spiritual Beliefs
Social Structure
Hmong 18 Clans
Hmong in China’s Journey to Southeast Asia
Every culture has its own story, and each generation writes its chronicle while adding to what has already been written in their history. History becomes an instrument that shapes a sense of identity by understanding where a group of people came from, who they were, and how the past influences their future. For the Hmong, their rich history dates back to ancient China and cannot be grouped into one single narrative. This article shares one perspective with two guiding questions: Who are the Hmong people in China? Why did their journey lead some of them to Southeast Asia?
Hmong People in China
The Hmong people are a transnational ethnic group who have cultural roots in East Asia (China) between 2700 BCE and 2300 BCE, Southeast Asia (Burma, Laos, Myanmar, Thailand, Vietnam) since the late 1800s, and around the world (Argentina, Australia, Canada, France, French Guiana, United States, and other countries) since the 1970s. This article focuses primarily on the Hmong in China and their eventual journey to Southeast Asia (specifically Laos). For thousands of years, the Hmong in China maintained a strong cultural identity with a distinct name and a desire to live independently.
In China, the Hmong are known to belong to the ethnic minority called the Miao and are lumped with many groups who share a common ancestor. One of them was Chiyou, a mythical king known to the Hmong as Txiv Yawg or grandfather. The other groups who fall under Miao are the Hmu, Qo Xiong, A-Hmao, and other non-Chinese ethnic minorities. The imperial Chinese government discriminated against minorities in China including the Hmong who were blamed as scapegoats for political history like the Miao Rebellions. The names Miao and Meo imposed negative connotations on the Hmong people who identified themselves Hmong.
Today, Hmong people living in China are proud to be called Miao. However, those living outside of China prefer the term Hmong. In the 1970s, Dr. Yang Dao, the first Hmong living in Southeast Asia to receive a Doctor of Philosophy (Ph.D.), championed the term “Hmong” and received support from clan leaders like General Vang Pao. Hmong was further recognized after the United States used it during immigration screening in the refugee camps in Thailand.
Different Names for the Hmong
There are numerous names for the Hmong people. The chart below provides the different ways of spelling Hmong used in China, Southeast Asia, and throughout the world; where they may be found; and the significance of the spelling.
Where They Live
The Hmong in China lived in the provinces of Chongqing, Hubei, Hunan, Guangxi, Guizhou, Sichuan, and Yunnan. Some Hmong scholars asserted that the Hmong people’s origin began at the lower basin of the Yellow River and the Hoi River long before the Han Chinese came. As the Hans came and built their civilization, the Hmong were driven southward.
Historically, Hmong people were divided between the “cooked” and the “raw.” In Qin dynasty documents, the cooked Hmong were those who assimilated to Han culture and settled in the lowlands and lived among them. These Hmong were treated poorly with few opportunities to improve their livelihoods because of discrimination, while governmental positions were given to the Han people. One benefit of surrendering was not being on the run and getting killed by the ruthless imperial military.
The raw Hmong, in contrast, fought to keep their way of life and independence. They refused to accept the Han Chinese way even when their lives were at stake. Many died, lost their lands, and were driven to live in the mountainous areas where the soil was less fertile. They moved from one area to another in search of new land to farm. One generation after another, they remained poor by economic standards, but endured the hardship to keep their identity.
Clothes They Wear
The Hmong are not a monolithic group. Instead, they are a diverse representation of people. Scholars classified the different groups based on the women’s clothes like skirts (long, short, white, black, blue/green), their sleeves (striped, black), flowery outfits, and the region they lived in. Hmong women’s clothing are a work of art consisting of colorful embroidered patterns, intricate silver head ornaments, necklaces, bracelets, and earrings. A notable feature is the silver accessories that represent a family’s status and prosperity.
Oral history said Hmong women were the keepers of knowledge because they once hid the ancient Hmong writing script in their clothing as the imperial government tried to wipe out their people and culture. Specifically, Hmong knowledge was saved and sewed into the pleated skirts of the women’s clothes. A modern representation of this can be found in the batik and embroidery especially found in Green/Blue Hmong women’s skirts. For example, three patterns on the skirt were sewn to represent the three main bodies of water that the Hmong crossed. Although knowledge and meanings of the script are largely lost, these motifs are a symbol of Hmong pride and identity.
Food They Eat
The main staple is rice, but the Hmong people traditionally also ate yams, millet, corn, wheat, buckwheat, and sorghum. Rice is so much a part of the Hmong diet that they referred to eating a meal as eating rice or noj mov. Boiling, drying, fermenting, frying, and steaming food are ways they prepared their meals. They eat chili peppers as a spicy dip or a side dish to accompany vegetables and meat. They enjoy sour food and nearly every family has a sour soup jar filled with different vegetables such as leeks, carrots, radishes, and cucumbers. After 10 days, the sour soup is ready to be cooked with meats like chicken, fish, and small game animals. A meal was not complete without rice wine, and families would make toasts, sing, and dance if they have guests. Food is a piece of their identity that transcends time.
Religious and Spiritual Beliefs
The majority of Hmong in China practice a mix of ancestor veneration and animism. Ancestor veneration is the practice of worshiping deceased family members who are believed to have the power to influence the lives of the living. The families believe their ancestors’ spirits are around to protect them so they worship and honor them. Animism is the belief that natural objects have souls or spirits, and they can help or harm people. For example, in the natural world, it is believed that rocks, trees, streams, and the environment have spirits. These spirits are either good or bad and can have an influence on the human world and impact their health. Over the years, some Hmong have converted to Christianity, Buddhism, and other religious practices.
Social Structure
Oral stories speak of the Chinese imperial government dividing and conquering the Hmong by separating them into subgroups. Over time, these groups became “clans” so the Hmong could never be united as a people to rise against the Chinese.
Today, Hmong in China are a patriarchal society where the clan is led by men. They have Chinese surnames like Li, Wang, and Yang. Family lineage, surname, or last name follow patrilineal succession where the male line of descendents can be traced to a common male ancestor. People become paternal members through marriage, having children, being adopted or welcomed through other cultural ceremonial ways. For example, when a son is born, he takes on the father’s surname, which carries the clan name. When a woman marries, she takes on her husband’s name with nyab (daughter-in-law) in front of it (e.g., Nyab Pao or Nyab Tou), and she becomes a part of her husband’s clan. Although it is unknown how many clans live in China, there are 18 officially recognized clans in America where most of the Hmong came from Laos. Some scholars assert there were originally 12 clans, but the larger clans split to become smaller clans. The chart below shares the clan names in English, in White Hmong Romanized Popular Alphabet (RPA), and Blue/Green Hmong (Mong Leng) RPA. Clans offer group structure like cultural authority and social support to maintain strong family ties and communities.
Hmong 18 Clans
Hmong in China’s Journey to Southeast Asia
From the late 1700s to the late 1800s, the Hmong were being persecuted by the Imperial Chinese. Many had no choice but to flee southward into Southeast Asia to maintain their way of life and independence. Since the lowlands were already occupied by other groups, the only choice was for the Hmong to live in mountainous areas. Even though the Hmong are now spread throughout many parts of Asia, the largest Hmong population still lives in China. For new generations who called Laos home, they were often caught into the local politics, including impacts of French colonization of Southeast Asia (1887 to 1954) and Japanese occupation during World War II (1941-1945); and later with the Americans’ involvement in the Secret War (1961-1975). In oral stories, the Hmong in Laos referred to World War II as the Japanese War, the Indochina War as the French War, and the Secret War as the American War.
In modern times, Hmong Americans guide their deceased loved ones’ souls to return to the land of their ancestors in China. Elders tell stories about the Yellow River and the Hmong ancestor hero, Chiyou, whose tomb still exists. They also speak of the south side of the Great Wall being built by Imperial governments to keep the Hmong divided.
History, society, culture, and identity change over time. The Hmong people in China’s story of turmoil and triumph provides a story of understanding where they came from, who they were, and how the past influenced their future. No matter what the stories say or where the Hmong go, one thing remains clear: their roots are in China. To learn more about the Hmong story in Southeast Asia and around the world one must look at the Hmong in China first, because that was where their story began.
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Contributing Editor: Yia Vue
Illustrator: Alex Yang
